Natural history, pathophysiology and evaluation of gastroesophageal reflux disease☆,
Introduction
Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) is one of the most common diseases encountered by both interests and gastroenterologists. The estimated prevalence of disease ranges from 8 to 33% with the incidence of disease only expected to increase over time.1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 GERD is a condition that occurs when the reflux of gastric contents causes troublesome symptoms and complications in patients. Despite the understanding of numerous risk factors, evaluation modalities, and diagnostic tests, GERD continues to affect a large fraction of patients. In this report we provide a comprehensive review of the epidemiology, pathophysiology, evaluation and diagnosis of GERD.
Section snippets
Epidemiology
GERD is a chronic, commonly encountered disease in both the primary and specialty clinic settings. The prevalence of GERD in the Western world is estimated to range from 10% to 25%, while the prevalence in Asia is reported to be <5%.1, 2, 3, 4,6,8 The prevalence of GERD symptoms had risen about 50% until 1995, but has since remained constant.9 In addition, GERD carries a significant economic burden with its evaluation and management, and is estimated to be greater than $10 billion per year.10
Pathophysiology
Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) is a chronic relapsing condition that occurs when the reflux of gastric contents from the stomach causes troublesome symptoms and/or complications in patients.22, 23, 24, 25 The reflux from the stomach provokes symptoms and complications, which generally includes heartburn and regurgitation.15,25 GERD is thought to progress when factors that are harmful to the esophagus overcome many of the mechanisms that are protective – the gastroesophageal (GE)
Natural history
The natural history of GERD is difficult to discern despite the increase prevalence of the condition.35 This is due to the lack of longitudinal, prospective studies prior to the universal availability of proton pump inhibitor (PPI) therapy and ambiguity in the condition's classification when overlapped with similar symptoms of other functional gastrointestinal tract disorders.35,36 GERD is categorized into two major subtypes: erosive reflux disease (ERD) and non-erosive reflux disease (NERD).35,
Risk factors
GERD is influenced by both heritable and environmental factors.39 Recognized risk factors include obesity, genetics, tobacco smoking, pregnancy, hiatal herniation, and certain medications and foods.40,41
Typical signs and symptoms
The two most common symptoms associated with GERD are heartburn and regurgitation (Fig. 1). Heartburn is described as a burning sensation in the retrosternal region of chest, and is typically postprandial.24 Regurgitation is the feeling of gastric contents refluxing back into the mouth or throat.24 Other signs include nausea, dysphagia, chest pain, globus sensation, and/or hypersalivation. Majority of cases of GERD can be diagnosed clinically based on history and symptomatology, however, it may
Evaluation of GERD
The evaluation of GERD can be complicated at times, and requires a combination of subjective and objective findings. Evaluation of GERD begins with a thorough history regarding patient's clinical symptoms, objective findings on physical exam and testing, evaluation of anatomical variances, and exclusion of other common causes of patient's symptoms.78
Diagnosis of GERD
As mentioned above, that the diagnosis of GERD is usually a clinical one. However, if the presumptive diagnosis is insufficient or the patient does not experience resolution of symptoms after initiation of treatment, other diagnostic modalities are used to confirm the diagnosis of GERD.6,7 Understanding the utility and evidence behind these tests in the diagnosis of GERD is essential.
Conclusion
GERD remains one of the most common conditions encountered in primary care and gastroenterology clinics. Despite its increased prevalence, the variation in presentation of GERD can make the evaluation and diagnosis challenging. There continue to be knowledge gaps in our understanding of the risk factors, diagnostic modalities, and evaluation of GERD. In majority of the cases, clinical symptomatology alone is sufficient in making the diagnosis. However, in patients with atypical symptoms and
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2021, Digestive and Liver DiseaseCitation Excerpt :The etiology of GERD is believed to be multifactorial. Despite a large body of systematic reviews and meta-analyses devoted to examining environmental factors and GERD [7–8], there are no systematic efforts to summarize and critically appraise this body of evidence [9–11]. We therefore summarized the factors examined through meta-analyses, assessed the quality of the methodology used, investigated potential biases, and determined which associations are supported by robust epidemiologic evidence.
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Disclaimers: None.
Sources of support/funding: This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.